Unraveling molecular and functional heterogeneity of niche cells within the developing endoderm could resolve mechanisms of tissue formation and maturation. Here, we discuss current unknowns in molecular mechanisms underlying key developmental events in pancreatic islet and intestinal epithelial formation. Recent breakthroughs in single‐cell and spatial transcriptomics, paralleled with functional studies in vitro, reveal that specialized mesenchymal subtypes drive the formation and maturation of pancreatic endocrine cells and islets via local interactions with epithelium, neurons, and microvessels. Analogous to this, distinct intestinal (...) niche cells regulate both epithelial development and homeostasis throughout life. We propose how this knowledge can be used to progress research in the human context using pluripotent stem cell‐derived multilineage organoids. Overall, understanding the interactions between the multitude of microenvironmental cells and how they drive tissue development and function could help us make more therapeutically relevant in vitro models. (shrink)

Traditional martial arts continue to be interesting and inspiring to many people around the globe. Some of their contemporary adaptations attract enthusiasts for whom they are especially important. In this article, the author bases his observations on his own long-term participation. The analysis takes into account the influence of the perspectives of Jigoro Kano and several other creators of modern varieties of Japanese budo. It can be concluded that regular, even daily, practice—cultivating martial arts and internalizing its values—co-creates the lifestyle (...) of instructors and advanced students. (shrink)

Author: Burszta Wojciech Józef Title: SUBJECTIVE RECONSTRUCTION OF NATIONALISM (Podmiotowa rekonstrukcja nacjonalizmu) Source: Filo-Sofija year: 2011, vol:.12, number: 2011/1, pages: 311-328 Keywords: NATIONALISM, METONYMY, METAPHOR, IDENTITY, SYMBOLIC CULTURE, PROPOSITION Discipline: PHILOSOPHY Language: POLISH Document type: ARTICLE Publication order reference (Primary author’s office address): E-mail: www:The article invokes the idea of subjective reconstruction of symbolic culture, originally proposed by Jerzy Kmita in his book Culture and Cognition (1985), and places his thesis in contemporary world of cultural flows. The author focuses (...) on demonstrating how we can apply a subjective interpretation of culture phenomena in the context of nationalism and national mythology. Renaissance of the ideology of nationalism nowadays is not so striking in the light of detailed reconstruction of a hidden normative and directive propositions which people formulate according to a proper order of the social arrangements. Subjective reconstruction of culture captures both the phenomenon of long duration processes, as well as those that are emergent. (shrink)

The most‐critical point of reproductive development in all sexually reproducing species is the transition from mitotic to meiotic cell cycle. Studies in unicellular fungi have indicated that the decision to enter meiosis must be made before the beginning of the premeiotic S phase. Recent data from the mouse1 suggest that this timing of meiosis initiation is a universal feature shared also by multicellular eukaryotes. In contrast, the signaling cascade that leads to meiosis initiation shows great diversity among species. BioEssays 29:511–514, (...) 2007. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. (shrink)

This breakthrough volume integrates European, British, and American scholarship in advanced areas of philosophy and decision theory. Contributions cover a broad area of economics--from criticism of institutional economics to examination of the role of induction in economic forecasting.

Ethical approval must be obtained before medical research can start. We describe the differences in EA for an pseudonymous, non-interventional, observational European study. Sixteen European national coordinators of the international study on very old intensive care patients answered an online questionnaire concerning their experience getting EA. N = 8/16 of the NCs could apply at one single national ethical committee, while the others had to apply to various regional ECs and/or individual hospital institutional research boards. The time between applying for (...) EA and the first decision varied between 7 days and 300 days. In 9/16 informed consent from the patient was not deemed necessary; in 7/16 informed consent was required from the patient or relatives. The upload of coded data to a central database required additional information in 14/16. In 4/16 the NCs had to ask separate approval to keep a subject identification code list to de-pseudonymize the patients if questions would occur. Only 2/16 of the NCs agreed that informed consent was necessary for this observational study. Overall, 6/16 of the NCs were satisfied with the entire process and 8/16 were unsatisfied. 11/16 would welcome a European central EC that would judge observational studies for all European countries. Variations in the process and prolonged time needed to get EA for observational studies hampers inclusion of patients in some European countries. This might have a negative influence on the external validity. Further harmonization of ethical approval process across Europe is welcomed for low-risk observational studies. Getting ethical approval for low-risk, non-interventional, observational studies varies enormously across European countries. (shrink)

This handbook offers a deep analysis of the main forms of legal reasoning and argumentation from both a logical-philosophical and legal perspective. These forms are covered in an exhaustive and critical fashion, and the handbook accordingly divides in three parts: the first one introduces and discusses the basic concepts of practical reasoning. The second one discusses the main general forms of reasoning and argumentation relevant for legal discourse. The third one looks at their application in law as well as at (...) the different areas of legal reasoning. The handbook’s division in three parts reflects its conceptual architecture, since legal reasoning and argumentation are considered in relation to the more general types of reasoning. (shrink)

The collection presents a variety of promising new directions in Royce scholarship from an international group of scholars, including historical reinterpretations, explorations of Royce's ethics of loyalty and religious philosophy, and contemporary applications of his ideas in psychology, the problem of reference, neo-pragmatism, and literary aesthetics.

From Fichte to Kant and back. Several considerations on Marek J. Siemek’s concept of transcendentalism: The basic interpretation claim presented in Marek J. Siemek’s book is that Kant created a completely new level of philosophical reflection, for which the epistemological question remains characteristic. This question — in contrast to the epistemic questions posed before Kant — neither solely focuses on the problem of the ontic structure of the reality nor it does on the cognitive conditions which enable a subject to (...) get to know the latter. The epistemological question deals with the very relationship that occurs between the cognition and the reality and constitutes both the ontological and cognitive conditions of knowledge. According to Siemek, Kant developed a transcendental perspective, but only Fichte was able to fully develop it, while Kant dealt with interweaving epistemic and epistemological threads. However, one can defend the thesis that Kantian solutions, on the one hand, are much more strongly situated on the epistemological level of reflection than Siemek was ready to admit, and on the other hand, they offer a weaker model of transcendentalism which — in contrast to the stronger Fichte’s model — explores only the impassable limits of transcendental reflection. (shrink)

Książek poświęconych refleksji nad pojęciem racjonalności ukazuje się obecnie wiele, zaś większość z nich przyjmuje bardziej lub mniej jasno wyrażony przesłankę, iż pojęcie to przeżywa obecnie głęboki kryzys. Samo pojęcie kryzysu jest przy tym na ogol stosowane w sposób, który należałoby nazwać intelektualną nonszalancją, gdyby tylko ów niefrasobliwy, niekiedy wręcz metaforyczny użytek, jaki się z niego czyni, był wynikiem świadomego zamiaru. Tak jednak zwykle się nie dzieje, a prace poświęcone trudnościom z prawidłowym zdefiniowaniem pojecia racjonalności i określeniem jego funkcji w (...) obrębie rozważań filozoficznych mówią o kryzysie tak, iż odbiorca ulega niekiedy nieodpartemu wrażeniu, iż chodzi o kryzys porównywalny do kryzysu ekonomicznego, przez który należy możliwie szybko i przy minimalnych stratach własnych przejść i jak najszybciej otrząsnąć się z minionych trudności. Nie miałoby sensu bliższe wnikanie w przyczyny owego stanu rzeczy, bowiem wiąże się one nierozerwalnie z pojmowaniem najważniejszych problemów filozoficznych, przez co niemożliwe jest choćby skrótowe ich omówienie. Przede wszystkim jednak - z punktu widzenia zarówno refleksji nad pojęciem racjonalności, jak i rozważań, które zmierzają do określenia, czy rzeczywiście mamy współcześnie do czynienia z tak poważnym kryzysem racjonalności, jak zdają się sugerować niektórzy autorzy prac poświęconych temu zagadnieniu - poszukiwanie owych przyczyn nie wydaje się czynnością potrzebny. (shrink)

Książek poświęconych refleksji nad pojęciem racjonalności ukazuje się obecnie wiele, zaś większość z nich przyjmuje bardziej lub mniej jasno wyrażony przesłankę, iż pojęcie to przeżywa obecnie głęboki kryzys. Samo pojęcie kryzysu jest przy tym na ogol stosowane w sposób, który należałoby nazwać intelektualną nonszalancją, gdyby tylko ów niefrasobliwy, niekiedy wręcz metaforyczny użytek, jaki się z niego czyni, był wynikiem świadomego zamiaru. Tak jednak zwykle się nie dzieje, a prace poświęcone trudnościom z prawidłowym zdefiniowaniem pojecia racjonalności i określeniem jego funkcji w (...) obrębie rozważań filozoficznych mówią o kryzysie tak, iż odbiorca ulega niekiedy nieodpartemu wrażeniu, iż chodzi o kryzys porównywalny do kryzysu ekonomicznego, przez który należy możliwie szybko i przy minimalnych stratach własnych przejść i jak najszybciej otrząsnąć się z minionych trudności. Nie miałoby sensu bliższe wnikanie w przyczyny owego stanu rzeczy, bowiem wiąże się one nierozerwalnie z pojmowaniem najważniejszych problemów filozoficznych, przez co niemożliwe jest choćby skrótowe ich omówienie. Przede wszystkim jednak - z punktu widzenia zarówno refleksji nad pojęciem racjonalności, jak i rozważań, które zmierzają do określenia, czy rzeczywiście mamy współcześnie do czynienia z tak poważnym kryzysem racjonalności, jak zdają się sugerować niektórzy autorzy prac poświęconych temu zagadnieniu - poszukiwanie owych przyczyn nie wydaje się czynnością potrzebny. (shrink)

The problem of identity at least these days, is not a directly philosophical problem, but rather the subject of disputes in the well-known newspapers. Identity is rarely the subject of modern famous thinkers' speeches. This is because in the present process of uniting Europe, the main debate centres around the economic and political aspects of the process, whilst the cultural aspects are put to one side. It is worth mentioning here C. Adenauer's assertion: „The ground of European unity is an (...) idea of Christian community, culture and European civilization." In this context we can also mention the previous chairman of the European Commission, J. Dolors, who states: „If Europe does not have its own soul, it will not define itself as cultural, it will not be Europe. But if it is only a political or economical community, it will not absolutely fulfil its task." It is not difficult to notice the difference between these two statements; the first highlights the problem of cultural unity, formulated as a postulate, a kind of program which must be carried out in the future. We can interpret Dolors' thought as a kind of warning against neglecting the problem of cultural identity. (shrink)

The problem of identity at least these days, is not a directly philosophical problem, but rather the subject of disputes in the well-known newspapers. Identity is rarely the subject of modern famous thinkers' speeches. This is because in the present process of uniting Europe, the main debate centres around the economic and political aspects of the process, whilst the cultural aspects are put to one side. It is worth mentioning here C. Adenauer's assertion: „The ground of European unity is an (...) idea of Christian community, culture and European civilization." In this context we can also mention the previous chairman of the European Commission, J. Dolors, who states: „If Europe does not have its own soul, it will not define itself as cultural, it will not be Europe. But if it is only a political or economical community, it will not absolutely fulfil its task." It is not difficult to notice the difference between these two statements; the first highlights the problem of cultural unity, formulated as a postulate, a kind of program which must be carried out in the future. We can interpret Dolors' thought as a kind of warning against neglecting the problem of cultural identity. (shrink)

The problem of identity at least these days, is not a directly philosophical problem, but rather the subject of disputes in the well-known newspapers. Identity is rarely the subject of modern famous thinkers' speeches. This is because in the present process of uniting Europe, the main debate centres around the economic and political aspects of the process, whilst the cultural aspects are put to one side. It is worth mentioning here C. Adenauer's assertion: „The ground of European unity is an (...) idea of Christian community, culture and European civilization." In this context we can also mention the previous chairman of the European Commission, J. Dolors, who states: „If Europe does not have its own soul, it will not define itself as cultural, it will not be Europe. But if it is only a political or economical community, it will not absolutely fulfil its task." It is not difficult to notice the difference between these two statements; the first highlights the problem of cultural unity, formulated as a postulate, a kind of program which must be carried out in the future. We can interpret Dolors' thought as a kind of warning against neglecting the problem of cultural identity. (shrink)

The author analyzes recent Polish debates on researching silenced aspects of national history and the problem of the "collective guilt". One of the major questions arising in these debates is: does the study of "white spots" from the past lead to a trauma of continuous collective self-blame? In Poland, a specialized institution, the Institute of National Memory, was founded in 1998, engaging in research, documentation and public education on events related to German and Soviet occupation during WWII and the activity (...) of political police under communism. Polish debates on the past got particularly inflamed after the discovery made by the historian J.T.Gross on the participation of Poles in the massacre of Jewish inhabitants of the town of Jedwabne in 1941. His book published in 2000 provoked a heated debate in which methodological, political and moral arguments were used on both sides. This case also occasioned a polemic between two prominent historians, identifying two basic visions of national history: the "monumental" one, recognizing only the heroic deeds that the nation takes pride in, and the "skeptical" one, which looks for silenced and shameful facts. Though both participants in the polemic opt for the third vision, the "objective" history which dispassionately seeks the truth, one of them stresses the role of the monumental history in maintaining the cohesion of the national community, while the other emphasizes that the collective acknowledgement of the nation's crimes can be a basis for national pride.. U ovom clanku autor analizira debate koje se u Poljskoj vode oko istrazivanja precutanih aspekata nacionalne istorije i problema "kolektivne krivice". Jedno od osnovnih pitanja koja se u tim debatama namecu glasi: da li se istrazivanje "belih mrlja" iz proslosti moze, ili cak mora, pretvoriti u traumu neprekidnog kolektivnog samooptuzivanja? U Poljskoj je 1998. osnovana specijalizovana ustanova, Institut nacionalnog pamcenja, koji se bavi istrazivanjem, dokumentacijom i javnom edukacijom o dogadjajima vezanim za nemacku i sovjetsku okupaciju tokom II svetskog rata i delovanje politicke policije za vreme komunizma. Poljske debate o proslosti posebno je rasplamsalo otkrice istoricara J.T. Grosa o ucescu Poljaka u istrebljenju jevrejskog stanovnistva gradica Jedvabne 1941. godine. U zaostrenoj polemici koju je Grosova knjiga, objavljena 2000. godine, izazvala u strucnoj i siroj javnosti korisceni su argumenti metodoloske, politicke i moralne prirode. Ovaj slucaj je takodje posluzio kao povod za polemiku dvojice istaknutih istoricara u kojoj su identifikovane dve osnovne vizije nacionalne istorije: "monumentalna", koja priznaje samo herojska dela kojima se nacija ponosi, i "skepticna", koja traga za precutanim cinjenicama zbog kojih se treba stideti. Iako se oba ucesnika u polemici zalazu za trecu, "objektivnu" istoriju koja ce bez strasti tragati za istinom, jedan od njih naglasava ulogu monumentalne istorije u ocuvanju kohezivnosti nacionalne zajednice, dok drugi istice da i kolektivno priznanje sopstvenih zlocina moze biti osnova za nacionalni ponos. (shrink)

Philosophy in science should be sharply distinguished from the philosophy of science. The latter offers a philosophical reflection on the method of science; the former, on the contrary, is expected to concentrate on the mutual influence between the philosophical ideas and scientific theories and practice. The papers in this book explore both the methodological niveau of the philosophy in science and some particular philosophical issues intertwined with scientific theories. Only such a combination of two perspectives may provide a comprehensive picture (...) of the methods and applications characteristic of philosophy in science. The book includes essays by Sir Roger Penrose, Joseph LeDoux, Francisco J. Ayala, and Michael Heller who won of the Templeton Prize in 2008. (shrink)

Festschrift in Honor of Barry Smith on the occasion of his 65th Birthday. Published as issue 4:4 of the journal Cosmos + Taxis: Studies in Emergent Order and Organization. Includes contributions by Wolfgang Grassl, Nicola Guarino, John T. Kearns, Rudolf Lüthe, Luc Schneider, Peter Simons, Wojciech Żełaniec, and Jan Woleński.

Polskie przepisy prawne formułujące warunki dopuszczalności eksperymentu medycznego, a więc ipso facto wyznaczające jego granice, można różnorako interpretować, zwłaszcza w tym zakresie, w jakim określają wymagany dla przeprowadzenia eksperymentu bilans związanych z nim możliwych korzyści i szkód. W artykułach prawniczych komentujących te przepisy w zasadzie jednak brak prób systematycznego i (na tyle, na ile pozwala na to sam przedmiot analizy) ścisłego wyróżnienia tych interpretacji w języku tzw. teorii racjonalnego wyboru (rational choice theory), teorii szczególnie przydatnej w tym kontekście z uwagi (...) na jej rozbudowany aparat pojęciowy pozwalający badać różnorakie konfiguracje relacji między costs i benefits. Artykuł próbuje wypełnić tę lukę: wyróżnione w nim zostały różne interpretacje przepisów prawnych określających warunki dopuszczalności eksperymentu medycznego; interpretacje te zostały również poddane ocenie. (shrink)

Information can be public among a group. Whether or not information is public matters, for example, for accounts of interdependent rational choice, of communication, and of joint intention. A standard analysis of public information identifies it with (some variant of) common belief. The latter notion is stipulatively defined as an infinite conjunction: for p to be commonly believed is for it to believed by all members of a group, for all members to believe that all members believe it, and so (...) forth. This analysis is often presupposed without much argument in philosophy. Theoretical entrenchment or intuitions about cases might give some traction on the question, but give little insight about why the identification holds, if it does. The strategy of this paper is to characterize a practical-normative role for information being public, and show that the only things that play that role are (variants of) common belief as stipulatively characterized. In more detail: a functional role for “taking a proposition for granted” in non-isolated decision making is characterized. I then present some minimal conditions under which such an attitude is correctly held. The key assumption links this attitude to beliefs about what is public. From minimal a priori principles, we can argue that a proposition being public among a group entails common commitment to believe among that group. Later sections explore partial converses to this result, the factivity of publicity and publicity from the perspective of outsiders to the group, and objections to the aprioricity of the result deriving from a posteriori existential presuppositions. (shrink)

Ned Block argues that the higher-order (HO) approach to explaining consciousness is ‘defunct’ because a prominent objection (the ‘misrepresentation objection’) exposes the view as ‘incoherent’. What’s more, a response to this objection that I’ve offered elsewhere (Weisberg 2010) fails because it ‘amounts to abusing the notion of what-it’s-like-ness’ (xxx).1 In this response, I wish to plead guilty as charged. Indeed, I will continue herein to abuse Block’s notion of what-it’s-like-ness. After doing so, I will argue that the HO approach accounts (...) for the sense of what-it’s-like-ness that matters in a theory of consciousness. I will also argue that the only incoherence present in the HO theory is that generated by embracing Block’s controversial notion of what-it’s-like-ness, something no theorist of any stripe ought to do. Block is famous for (among other things) having introduced the notion of ‘phenomenal consciousness’ into contemporary philosophy of mind (Block 1995). This term is widely employed in the philosophical literature and it even appears in the empirical literature. But wide-speared usage has brought about divergent interpretations of the term. We can distinguish a ‘moderate’ and a ‘zealous’ reading of ‘phenomenal consciousness’. On the moderate reading, ‘phenomenal consciousness’ just means ‘experience’. Many people have embraced this sense of the term and use it to roughly pick out conscious experience involving sensory quality (states like conscious visual experiences or conscious pains, for example).2 On the zealous reading, however, phenomenal consciousness is held to be ‘distinct from any cognitive, intentional, or functional property’ (Block 1995: 234). That is, any explanation of phenomenal consciousness in exclusively cognitive, intentional, or functional terms will fail to capture, without remainder, what is really distinctive about phenomenal consciousness. Block, of course, is fully clear about embracing the zealous reading; indeed, his initial introduction of the notion is in those terms. The same ambiguity occurs with the much-used (and abused) idea of ‘what-it’s-like-ness’.. (shrink)

Le Maitre de Claville należy do tradycji moralistycznej klasycyzmu francuskiego i stara się podołać niebagatelnemu zadaniu stworzenia portretu człowieka godnego, honnete homme’a. Usiłując zdefiniować pojęcie cnoty, odwołuje się do własnego smaku estetycznego, subiektywnych emocji radości, zachwytu i rozkoszy wynikających z obcowania z pięknem. Z dużą dowolnością wybiera to, co sam uważa za najdoskonalsze z antyku, Biblii i w najnowszych prądach myślowych swego czasu: m.in. racjonalizmu. Połączenie tych trzech elementow nie jest łatwe. W jego rozważaniach ujawnia się wysiłek moralisty starającego się (...) nadać swej koncepcji kształt logicznie uporządkowanej doktryny, z elementow swobodnie wybranych, nie zawsze ze sobą zgodnych. (shrink)

Expression of physical motion (e.g., man runs by) shows systematic variability not only between language types (i.e., inter-typological) but also within a language type (i.e., intra-typological). In this study, we asked whether the patterns of variability extend to metaphorical motion events (e.g., time runs by). Our analysis of randomly selected 450 physical motion (150/language) and 450 metaphorical motion (150/language) event descriptions from written texts originally produced by German, Polish, and Spanish authors showed strong inter-typological differences in the expression of both (...) event types. German and Polish speakers differed from Spanish speakers in how they packaged manner and path components of a motion event; they also differed in how extensively they expressed each component in their lexicalization of motion. The strong inter-typological differences were accompanied by more modest intra-typological variability: Polish and German writers differed in their packaging and lexicalization of manner and path components of metaphorical—but not physical—motion events. Our results provide evidence for robust inter-typological differences evident in the expression of both physical and metaphorical motion, along with less robust intra-typological differences, largely evident in the expression of metaphorical motion. Our study thus highlights event type as an important factor in determining crosslinguistic variation in motion expression. (shrink)

Self-esteem and emotional reactivity may be important personality determinants of human functioning in situations of social exposure. In this study, we compared the levels of these personality variables in a group of professional theater actors and a group of professional illusionists with a control group of participants who were neither actors nor illusionists and had no artistic education. We also examined the correlations between emotional reactivity and self-esteem in the three groups. For emotional reactivity, we found (1) very strong evidence (...) that the level is less for magicians than for controls, (2) substantial evidence that the level is less for magicians than for actors, (3) anecdotal evidence that the level is less for actors than for controls, and (4) decisive evidence that the average score is less for males than for females. For self-esteem, we found (1) anecdotal evidence that the level is higher for magicians than for controls, (2) substantial evidence that there is no difference between actors and magicians, (3) anecdotal evidence against a difference between actors and controls, and (4) anecdotal evidence against a difference between males and females. Based on the entire sample we found a moderate correlation between self-esteem and emotional reactivity (r = -.30, p < 0.001). Our results are compatible with the notion that emotional reactivity – as part of the temperament concept – is a factor influencing the choice of an artistic profession. (shrink)

The Limits of Cognition and the Shape of Being Based on the Thought of Karl Jaspers The article points out the elements of Karl Jaspers’ epistemological conception that cross out the possibility of a comprehensive account of being. The key issue here is the limits of cognition, which take the form of object cognition. The theme of limits points to the inadequacies of human thinking in the context of quantifiable and absolutist representations of reality. The impossibility of adequately grasping the (...) totality of reality will be illustrated here by means of the criticism Jaspers levelled at absolutising metaphysics. In connection with the description of the structure of cognition proposed by Jaspers, the article points out the conceptual proximity of the issue of worldview and metaphysics in the light of the thought of the cited author. (shrink)

This is an account of the Uprising fights of a young machinegunner of the “Baszta” Unit from the “W” hour to the honorable surrender at the end of September.

Artykuł prezentuje sposoby pozyskiwania klienta i działania na rzecz jego utrzymania przy pomocy nowych technologii i nowych mediów. Wykazano, iż zarządzanie relacjami z klientem jest pojęciem obszernym ze względu na różnorodność sytuacji, w których kontaktuje się on z przedsiębiorstwem. Zaprezentowano, iż zmiany technologiczne, a zwłaszcza dokonujące się w dynamicznym tempie umasowienie Internetu, przeobrażają oblicza firm i standardy obsługi klienta w stopniu niespotykanym we wcześniejszych pokoleniach. Przedstawiono również, że utrzymanie klienta jest ważniejsze niż pozyskanie nowego – zgodnie z zasadą V. Pareto. (...) Artykuł składa się z czterech rozdziałów. Pierwszy z nich opisuje rozwój metod komunikacji z klientem, które otworzyły się przed przedsiębiorstwami w związku z rozwojem Internetu. Drugi stanowi przegląd metod działań marketingowych polepszających statystyki pozyskiwania i utrzymywania klientów. W trzecim rozdziale opisano strategię zarządzania relacjami z klientami oraz scharakteryzowano typową budowę systemu informatycznego, wspomagającego realizację tejże strategii. Czwarty rozdział stanowi próbę uzasadnienia celowości nakładów ponoszonych na utrzymanie klientów. (shrink)

Kazimierz Twardowski attributed high cognitive value to introspection because he believed it plays a fundamental role in psychology, the primary philosophical discipline. He believed that basing philosophy on inner experience would allow it to obtain universal and justified results. Internal experience consists of perceiving one’s own mental facts; it is non-sensual and selfevident. Twardowski referred to introspection in his investigations in various ways, which is presented in the article.

With the meaning of trust, good faith and respect for promises made, protection, or assistance, fides in the non-exclusively religious sense of the word comes from the demand for ethical perfection: as such, it is omnipresent in human relations and in the dynamic of societies in the Middle Ages.